Apostrophe

Apostrophes can be used in the following ways:

1. to show possession;
2. to show omission;
3. to show contraction.

1. It was Viviane's idea, not mine.
2. It wasn't my idea. I wish I'd thought of it; in fact, I should've.
3. International → intn'l; government → gov't.

1. Apostrophes are notoriously misused. When misused they are referred to Greengrocers' apostrophes.
2. The rules for possessive apostrophes are complicated.

Colon

1. to introduce the elements of a list;
2. to introduce a quotation (as in a script);
3. to explain or define what came before;
4. for times and ratios;
5. in business letter greetings;
6. to separate titles and subtitles.

1. We visited two states: New York and Vermont.
2. Harry Callahan: Go ahead, make my day.
3. The athlete didn't finish the race: he pulled out on the last lap.
4. At 12:50, the odds were 10:1 (ten to one).
5. Dear Sir or Madam:
6. Mark My Words: The Poligo Guide to Punctuation.

1. A colon replaces a full stop / period.
2. What comes before a colon must be able to stand alone. A test is to replace the colon with a full stop. If the sentence is complete, a colon could be used. So a sentence like "We thought about: Jack, Jules and Jane" should be "We thought about our friends: Jack, Jules and Jane" or "We thought about Jack, Jules and Jane" since "We thought about" is incomplete.

Comma

Commas mark of parts of a sentence and show a pause:

1. for lists;
2. for introductions to a sentence;
3. for extra, non-essential information;
4. to join with a conjunction;
5. to separate clauses;
6. for listing adjectives;
7. to indicate omitted words;
8. in numbers to show thousands, millions, billions etc.

1. He asked me to buy milk, butter, eggs and sugar.
2. Once upon a time, there was an old man and an old woman.
3. We went back home, feeling exhausted, and watched T.V.
4. I think he is here, but he might be out.
5. When you get home, remember to bring in the mail.
6. He was tall, dark and handsome.
7. The German won the gold; the Spaniard, the silver.
8. The world's population in July, 2007 was estimated to be 6,602,224,175.

1. Many people will disagree on using commas. They can become a matter of style and personal choice.
2. There are many style 'rules' to using commas, but they are often a specific application of the above ideas.
3. Number 4 above is often remembered as F.A.N.B.O.Y.S.: for; and; nor; but; or; yet; and so.
4. A test for number 6 is to replace the comma with "and". If it still has the same meaning, your comma is correct.

Dash

Dashes create a disconnection:

1. like a colon;
2. like a semicolon;
3. like brackets;

Dashes also create a connection:

1. to show a range;
2. to show an afterthought.

Disconnection:

1. She was the winner—crossing the line in record time.
2. Thailand is perfect—the food is delicious and the people are very kind.
3. The boss—who everyone really likes—retired.

Connection:

1. Lunch: 12—1p.m.
2. I will be back by the fifth—that's the plan anyway.

1. A dash, used between words, is easy to confuse with a hyphen, which tends to be used within words.
2. Creates a very pregnant pause—often for powerful effect—to show some afterthought.

Ellipsis

Shows something is intentionally omitted:

1. when words are missing;
2. to show that something is left unsaid or unfinished;
3. to finish mysteriously.

1. I have a dream... Let freedom ring!
2. And so, the murderer must be... aarrrgghh!
3. And yet, when we arrived, no-one was there...

1. Ellipsis is often used with famous words, cliches and proverbs: "KIll two birds..." where the rest - "with one stone" - is understood.
2. Ellipsis is greatly overused and misunderstood, particularly on the internet.

Exclamation Mark or Exclamation Point

These show strong feeling or a loud voice:

1. as in exclamation;
2. for interjections;
3. for attention or drama.

1. What a fantastic place this is!
2. What! You're firing me?
3. And guess what! He was fired for it!

1. Overusing exclamation marks (!!!) can sound like your shouting when you write, but can be used for effect.
2. Exclamation marks are often seen with FULL CAPS to show that we are YELLING! WOOHOO!!!

Full Stop or Period

Full stops or periods show:

1. the end of a sentence;
2. for titles;
3. in acronyms.

Some examples:

1. This sentence is finished.
2. Mr. and Mrs. Jones will be arriving in ten minutes.
3. U.N. Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon, condemned recent events saying that...

1. Number 2 and 3 applies in American English, but not British English.

Hyphen

Hyphens are used in the following ways:

1. to join nouns;
2. to show spelling or hesitation;
3. to write numbers;
4. when noun phrases are used like adjectives;
5. with prefixes (sometimes);
6. to join words that split due to formatting.

1. The Spanish-American War was in 1898.
2. M-m-my name is S-s-smith: S-M-I-T-H.
3. I am forty-two years old.
4. In a life-and-death situation, there isn't time to think.
5. Charles Chaplin was accused of un-American activities.
6. It is believed that the fall in profits was due to an increase in trans-
   portation costs.

1. The rules for using hyphens in nouns (#4) have recently been re-written: you should check the dictionary if you are not sure.
2. For point 4, you can think of these as acting as one thought or idea rather than two separate ideas. For example: a "first-class ticket" is different from "He was in the first class".

Interrobang

The interrobang shows a combination of question (?) and exclamation (!):

1. as in an excited question;
2. to express disbelief or shock.

1. Can we go to Disneyland?!
2. They did what?!?

1. Even though it is non-standard, the interrobang is in common usage.
2. Can be written as ?! or !? or ?!? or ?!?!?!?!? and so on.

Inverted Commas

Inverted commas can be used the same as quotes, but also in one unique way:

1. As a quote within a quote.

1. "Your reports on 'Moby Dick' are due tomorrow", said the teacher.

1. Some people use inverted commas the same as quote marks. However, there is a difference between saying that a house is "one of a kind" and 'one of a kind': that is to say, a direct quote ("...") or unique.

Italics

Italics are used mark words as special or different:

1. like titles of books, movies and so on;
2. for foreign words;
3. emphasis.

1. The highest grossing movie of all time is Titanic.
2. The place has a certain je ne sais quoi.
3. I was here last night.

1. Boldface is also used for emphasis. However, though it highlights key words in text, it should not be used to show a difference in meaning. Italics are used to show a difference between a word and the words around it.

Parentheses or Brackets

Brackets are used to insert extra information into text:

1. to add details;
2. as an aside to talk directly to the reader;
3. to clarify, usually in quotes;
4. to replace unclear information in quotes.

1. John F. Kennedy (1917 - 1963) was the thirty-fifth president of the United States.
2. New Zealand (where I was born) is a magical place.
3. He said it [New Zealand] was a magical place.
4. He said [New Zealand] was a magical place.

1. Square brackets [ ] are often used to clarify meaning, as in 3 and 4.
2. Brackets interrupt the flow of writing, so contents of brackets should be kept brief.
3. Square brackets can be seen around ellipsis [...] and also [sic] which shows that something is a mistake (but left that way so as to be accurate): The man wrote that President Bash [sic] has made his mark on the world. [Sic] is also used when something looks like a mistake but isn't: The Chinese representative Dong Dong [sic] is the favourite going into the final.

Question Mark

1. A question mark is used in place of a full stop at the end of a question.

1. Where are you from?

1. Question marks are not used in reported speech or when the question is indirect. For example: I asked him if he was from around here; I was wondering where he was from.

Semicolon

The semicolon shows two (or more) things are part of one idea:

1. it is stronger than a comma;
2. it is weaker than a full stop;
3. it is used to show items on a list.

1. We visited three cities: Seattle; Los Angeles; and Miami.
2. The police finally arrested him; he was the bad guy all along!
3. The recipe calls for several ingredients: milk; eggs; flour; butter; and sugar.

1. Some people dislike semicolons; it is a question of style.
2. Using semicolons and colons can be a bit mysterious for many people. Some people dislike semicolons: they are optional and vague.
3. Used well, semicolons maintain pace; they encourage you to keep reading; they build momentum till the conclusion of a thought.

>> Learn more about semicolons.

Slash or Stroke

Slashes can be used in four ways:

1. to show "or";
2. in place of a hyphen;
3. line breaks in poetry or lyrics;
4. in shorthand or abbreviations.

1. A new student should report to the office. He/she will then receive an I.D. card.
2. The particle/wave debate continued for many years.
3. All the world's a stage, / And all the men and women merely players.
4. without → w/out; care of → c/- or c/o.

1. Some consider using a slash instead of a hyphen (number 2) incorrect.

Speech Marks or Quotation Marks or Quote Marks

Quotes are used for several purposes:

1. to show direct speech;
2. to show unique usage or meaning;
3. to be ironic or euphemistic (scare quotes);
4. to refer to the word itself (rather than it's meaning);
5. titles and nicnames.

1. Rick said, "Of all the gin joints in all the towns in all the world, she walks into mine."
2. To track users, websites use "cookies".
3. We will have to rely on his "expert" opinion.
4. "Soy" comes from the Japanese word shouyuu.
5. Val Kilmer plays "Doc" Holliday in the 1994 film "Tombstone".

1. Point 3 is often used to show a low opinion of what is refered to or to suggest that it is questionable. For example: the "sport" of ice dancing - suggests that the author thinks ice dancing is not really a sport. When spoken a poi nt like this is often indicated with an air quotes gesture.